National security implications of the Security and Intelligence Agencies Act 2026

Abstract
The Security and Intelligence Agencies Act, 2026 (Act 1168), represents a major reform of the national security architecture of Ghana, providing a modern legal and institutional framework for addressing evolving security threats. This paper examines the national security implications of the Act through the theoretical lenses of Realism, Human Security Theory, Security Sector Governance and the Whole-of-Government approach. It argues that Act 1168 strengthens strategic coordination, intelligence management, counter-terrorism, democratic governance, protection of human rights, cyber security, crisis management, protection of critical national infrastructure, regional cooperation and national resilience.

The paper further identifies implementation challenges, including institutional coordination, resource constraints and technological capacity. The paper concludes that the effective implementation of Act 1168 will enhance Ghana’s security and intelligence governance, strengthen democratic accountability and improve national resilience, while offering valuable lessons for security sector reform and intelligence governance across Africa.

Keywords:
Security and Intelligence Agencies Act; Act 1168; National Security; Intelligence Governance; Security Sector Governance; Democratic Oversight; Strategic Coordination; Counter-Terrorism; Cyber Security; Ghana.

Introduction
Ghana's current security situation is characterised by interconnected threats such as terrorism, violent extremism, organised crime, cybercrime, espionage, pandemics and climate insecurities. Such a situation requires the establishment of security institutions capable of providing an integrated security and intelligence system with effective legal structures that allow for an efficient reaction to security threats. For this reason, national security has moved from traditional security and defence to security and intelligence governance and national resilience.

Ghana enacted the Security and Intelligence Agencies Act, 2026 (Act 1168) to replace the Security and Intelligence Agencies Act, 2000 (Act 1030). The former modernises Ghana's security and intelligence architecture by strengthening regional and local security governance, establishing clearly-defined intelligence agencies, reinforcing the role of the National Security Coordinator and streamlining the executive oversight of national security. The Act also promotes intelligence coordination, professionalism, democratic oversight and accountability within the national security sector.

This paper analyses the effects of the national security components of Act 1168 from the Realist school of thought, Human Security Theory, SSG and the WoG approaches. The paper demonstrates Act 1168 not only provides for institutional reforms but also offers an overall framework to enhance the strategic coordination of security, intelligence management, counterterrorism, democratic governance, cybersecurity, crisis management, national resilience and regional cooperation. The paper concludes with implementation difficulties and recommendations for policy improvements of Ghana's national security structure.

Theoretical Framework
The paper applies Realism, Human Security Theory, SSG and the WoG Approach to examine the national security components of Ghana's Security and Intelligence Agencies Act, 2026 (Act 1168). These theories collectively highlight the role of the state in protecting national interests, monitoring the evolution of security threats, accountability of security structures and the requirements for coordinated government response to security challenges.

Realism forms the traditional basis of national security that perceives the state as the most important actor to secure its sovereignty, territorial integrity and constitutional structure amid an unpredictable international setting. From this perspective, Act 1168 enhances Ghana's capacity to respond to security threats by providing a legal framework to handle intelligence activities and security decision-making. This includes the National Security Council, security and intelligence organisations and the Office of the National Security Coordinator, which collectively enhance the capabilities of the state to secure national interests through intelligence and policy execution. However, Realism fails to offer an exhaustive account of security threats in the modern world because certain security threats are beyond the realm of military affairs.

The Human Security Theory advances the concept of security by focusing on individuals and communities as the focus of security policies. The theory recognises that insecurity potentially arises from terrorism, organised crime, communal conflicts, pandemics, environmental degradation, cybercrime and other non-traditional threats. Act 1168, as provided in Act 526 (1996) and Act 1030 (2000), reflects this broader conception by establishing REGSECs and DISECs to provide early warning, local threat assessment and coordinated responses to local security challenges. The Act, therefore, promotes preventive security by coordinating national security institutions with decentralised governance structures, thereby improving the capacity of states to address threats before escalation.

The SSG framework serves as the main institutional framework for assessing the relevance of Act 1168. The framework focuses on the principles of legality, civilian control, accountability, efficacy and mandate clarity. The Act establishes the intelligence agencies, Office of the National Security Coordinator and decentralised security councils; hence, it ensures clear responsibilities of the institutions and good governance and coordination in security management. The effectiveness of national security does not depend solely on capacity, but also on the institutions operating under the rule of law and proper oversight mechanisms.

The SSG framework incorporates the WoG approach through which security challenges demand integrated solutions from stakeholder institutions. Modern threats are often multifaceted in that they cross over defence, intelligence, policing, immigration, local government and emergency management among others. This is evident in the design of Act 1168, which creates systems for cooperation, intelligence gathering and planning among national, regional and district security institutions.

These theories form an overarching framework which can be applied to assess the national security issues associated with Act 1168. Realism helps explain why it is necessary to defend the state, while Human Security expands the concept of security to incorporate the security of citizens. The SSG Theory emphasises good governance, effectiveness and accountability. Finally, the WoG approach emphasises the necessity of strategic coordination. This approach can be applied to the study of the role of Act 1168 in improving strategic coordination, intelligence cooperation, counterterrorism and national resilience.

Strengthening Strategic Coordination
Coordination is pivotal in the national security structure due to the multifaceted nature of contemporary threats. Such issues as terrorism, extremism, cybercrime, organised crime, maritime insecurity, illegal mining, health emergencies and environmental disasters require coordination efforts more than can be achieved by individual organisations. It is for this reason the Security and Intelligence Agencies Act, 2026 (Act 1168) is relevant regarding national security because it provides a legal structure for intelligence coordination, policy formulation, planning and crisis management among security agencies.

Firstly, the Act enhances coordination through the National Security Council, which acts as the apex institution mandated to harmonise national security policies and strategic directions. The National Security Council is chaired by the President of the Republic of Ghana and comprises political, defence and high-level intelligence and security officials. The National Security Council ensures executive decision-making is based on intelligence analysis and planning.

Secondly, the Act enhances coordination through the Office of the National Security Coordinator. The National Security Coordinator coordinates activities among the various intelligence and security agencies, advises the National Security Council and facilitates the integration of intelligence. This coordination is critical because a lack of coordination may arise from institutional rivalry, overlapping functions and fragmentations in intelligence reporting. Such a coordination increases efficiency of threat analysis and enables the government to make decisions and allocate resources based on available intelligence.

Moreover, Act 1168 defines the responsibilities of principal intelligence institutions of Ghana. Internal, external and signal intelligence agencies perform different but complementary roles, making their operations more efficient because the necessity of collaboration eliminates duplication. Coordination among these three agencies becomes critical in situations where threats have internal, external and technological components.

Security decentralisation to the regional and district levels through the establishment of REGSECs and DISECs ensures coordination with the national government on local-level security challenges. This enables information from the local level to be relayed to the national level, while enforcing national security policies. Regional Ministers and District Chief Executives chair the REGSECs and DISECs, respectively.

REGSECs and DISECs ensure horizontal coordination among the police, military, immigration, fire service, intelligence agencies, local authorities and other related agencies. The combined assessment of security situations assists in coordinated response to communal strife, chieftaincy disputes, border insecurity, terrorism, disasters and public health crises. By combining the skills of the various agencies, local-level security councils become more effective in managing emergency situations.

In line with the theoretical perspectives, Act 1168 represents an example of both WoG and SSG perspectives. The key message in both of these theoretical perspectives is that the solution to any security challenge must involve collaboration among stakeholder institutions, not isolated solutions at the level of individual agencies. The Act also encourages a human security framework since it gives security agencies the mandate to respond to threats to the safety and wellbeing of citizens that extend beyond military considerations. However, for these coordination frameworks to succeed, they must depend on proper implementation. Bureaucratic rivalry, politicisation, inadequate information-sharing processes, overlapping responsibilities and inadequate analysis potentially compromise their effectiveness.

Therefore, the need exists for Ghana to develop communication networks that are compatible across security agencies, joint training programmes and exercises among others.

Intelligence Collection and Analysis
Tied in closely with the reinforcement of strategic coordination is the improvement in intelligence gathering and analysis, which is a major national security implication of the Security and Intelligence Agencies Act, 2026 (Act 1168). Although strategic coordination offers the organisational structure that facilitates collaboration among security players, intelligence gathering and analysis offer the data required for decision-making and threat anticipation. Therefore, the efficiency of Ghana's national security structure depends on the capacity of the structure to provide timely and accurate information for policy formulation and operational purposes.

Act 1168 strengthens Ghana's national intelligence system by establishing a clear legal and institutional framework for the collection, analysis, coordination and dissemination of intelligence. Together with Act 1040, Act 1168 recognises three principal intelligence agencies, the Internal Intelligence Agency, External Intelligence Agency and the Signals Intelligence Agency with clear mandates that collectively address domestic, foreign and technological dimensions of national security. This legal classification encourages specialisation and eliminates duplication of efforts and competition that typically exist within a fragmented intelligence community.

Additionally, the Act bolsters intelligence effectiveness through the coordination function of the National Security Coordinator and the National Security Council. With the provision of such coordinated mechanisms as the National Security Coordinator and the National Security Council, the coordination of information exchange between intelligence agencies and other security agencies becomes possible, thus, producing integrated intelligence assessments for decision-making. Instead of using separate intelligence reports, the government can make use of comprehensive intelligence that includes information from different sources, which improves decision-making and effectiveness in assessing threats.

Enhanced intelligence analysis improves Ghana's ability to deal with complex and interrelated security issues. Contemporary issues, including violent extremism, terrorism, cybercrime, transnational organised crime, maritime security, illegal mining, human trafficking and foreign influence, often exceed the jurisdictional mandate of individual organisations. Act 1168 encourages intelligence fusion through cooperation among intelligence agencies, law enforcement bodies and the Ghana Armed Forces through a Joint Intelligence Committee chaired by the National Security Coordinator. This collaboration enables intelligence analysts to detect emerging trends and take appropriate preventive action before escalation.

The decentralised security framework provided for under Act 1168 enhances intelligence gathering through the incorporation of REGSECs and DISECs into the national security framework. These councils provide a useful source of intelligence gathered from the districts and regions since they gather information on communal disputes, chieftaincy disputes, cross-border crimes, terrorism threats, environmental security threats among others. The transmission of such information to national security structures enhances Ghana's early warning framework.

From the Realist perspective, the role of intelligence is to enhance the ability of the state to defend its sovereignty and interests by minimising strategic uncertainty. This idea is supplemented with the concept of Human Security Theory in which intelligence should not only detect the threats to the country but also the threats to the security and wellbeing of citizens. SSG, on the other hand, highlights intelligence operations must be undertaken according to the rule of law.

Enhancement of Counterterrorism Capacity

It is evident the enhancements made to intelligence gathering and analysis through the Security and Intelligence Agencies Act, 2026 (Act 1168) have implications in terms of the counterterrorism capabilities of Ghana. It is important to note that effective counterterrorism requires intelligence, coordination and decision-making. The introduction of Act 1168 provides a better institutional setup to ensure prevention, detection and response to the threat of terrorism. This is especially important in view of the growing number of violent extremist groups in the Sahel region and the likelihood of terrorist spillover into West African nations.

The Act improves Ghana's capacity to prevent terrorist attacks through institutionalised cooperation among the Internal Intelligence Agency, External Intelligence Agency, Signals Intelligence Agency, Ghana Armed Forces, Ghana Police Service and other security agencies. Terrorist groups exploit porous borders, cyber tools, international criminal activities and local conflicts to recruit and finance their operations. Thus, no single institution possesses sufficient capability to address these multidimensional threats independently. The Act, therefore, strengthens national security by providing statutory mechanisms for intelligence sharing, joint threat assessments and coordinated operational planning across agencies. The Act also strengthens the country's early warning and preventive capabilities. Intelligence generated through national agencies, together with information obtained from REGSECs and DISECs, enables the government to identify indicators of radicalisation, terrorist financing, cross-border infiltration and violent extremist activities before attacks occur. The proposed preventative strategy aligns with the UN philosophy to combat terrorism through early action, enhanced intelligence cooperation and institutional integration as opposed to military action alone. One other implication of the Act 1168 is intelligence fusion and strategic analysis. Terrorist threats usually arise from the combination of crime, money laundering, arms dealing and ideology. Intelligence analysis involves merging information from different agencies for overall threat assessment. Similarly, the UN Office of Counter-Terrorism identifies inter-agency “Fusion Centre” approaches as international best practice for strengthening the capacity of African states to prevent and counter terrorism through coordinated intelligence analysis. Ghana participates in this capacity-building initiative. Therefore, the country has established the National Counter-Terrorism Fusion Centre as part of this approach.

Additionally, Act 1168 supports Ghana’s regional counterterrorism cooperation. The threat of terrorism in West Africa remains transnational and, therefore, calls for intelligence sharing among neighbouring countries. The Act enhances Ghana's ability to collaborate with regional bodies such as ECOWAS and the AU through national institutions to coordinate intelligence and implement related policies. Ghana stresses the need for increased cooperation among regions on intelligence and counterterrorism operations.

Realism provides an understanding that the state has an obligation to create institutions that can protect the state's sovereignty from the danger of terrorism. On the other hand, the Human Security Theory expands the obligation of the state by acknowledging terrorism is a threat to the security of individuals and society. SSG stresses the importance of establishing statutory institutions that operate under democratic accountability, and the WoG stresses the importance of coordinated action among various institutions.

Strengthening Democratic Governance
Although the Act enhances the country's ability to fight terrorism, the national security implication of the Act is in improving democratic governance. Effective counterterrorism requires robust security institutions; however, sustainable national security depends equally on ensuring institutions operate within a constitutional framework characterised by legality, accountability and the respect for the rule of law. The Act, therefore, seeks to balance the operational effectiveness of intelligence agencies with democratic oversight, thereby reinforcing public confidence in Ghana's security architecture.

The Act strengthens democratic governance by providing a comprehensive statutory framework that unequivocally defines the mandates, functions and reporting relationships of Ghana’s intelligence agencies and coordinating institutions. By replacing the fragmented legal arrangements in previous Acts, Act 1168 establishes greater legal certainty regarding the roles of the National Security Council, the National Security Coordinator, the Internal Intelligence Agency, the External Intelligence Agency, the Signals Intelligence Agency and the REGSECs and DISECs. Unambiguous institutional responsibilities reduce overlapping mandates, minimise arbitrary exercise of power and improve accountability within the national security sector.

An equally important implication is the strengthening of civilian control over the security and intelligence sector. The Act places intelligence agencies under the strategic supervision of the National Security Council and provides executive democratic control and oversight through a minister responsible for National Security. These provisions guarantee security agencies are subordinate to the democratically-elected civilian government and act under the terms prescribed by the law. Such systems are likely to foster transparency and good governance.

Act 1168 promotes good democratic governance through enhanced legislative oversight. The provision for reporting on the national security strategy ensures the legislature can oversee executive oversight of the operations of the security sector while still being able to protect the confidentiality of certain operations. Democratic control and oversight are important elements of intelligence governance because they ensure accountability and professionalism. Also, the requirement for the Constitution and the other relevant laws to govern intelligence activities under the Act 1168 ensures the rule of law is reinforced. This helps to ensure intelligence activities respect human rights while providing for an effective response to threats. In democratic societies, confidence in intelligence institutions not only depends on the institutions' ability to provide security but also to observe legality and civil liberties.

The SSG Theory is the main paradigm through which these changes can be perceived. This theory underscores the necessity of security-sector institutions operating under democratic supervision, civilian oversight, transparency and accountability. The WoG Theory is compatible with the SSG because it recognises good democratic governance requires coordination among executive-branch institutions, legislature, local governments, and the security agencies. The Human Security Theory also demonstrates the fact that the people's confidence in state institutions constitutes an element of security.

Protection of Human Rights
In addition to strengthening democratic governance, Act 1168 has further consequences for human rights, which is a vital component of national security. It is not possible for democratic governance to survive if security and intelligence agencies operate outside of the law. On the other hand, national security requires trust based on democratic security governance. Consequently, the Act is geared at striking a balance between operational efficiency of the security and intelligence organisations on one hand and the rights and freedoms provided for in the 1992 Constitution of Ghana on the other.

The Act further enhances the protection of human rights through the creation of a statutory regime that defines the role, mandate and powers of the intelligence and security bodies in Ghana. Through clear mandates and powers, abuse of authority can be minimised since the intelligence services only operate within the scope of law. Legal certainty assumes even greater significance, as intelligence services have special powers regarding surveillance, intelligence operations and covert action, all of which require protection from abuse.

Similarly, Act 1168 provides for enhanced accountability and oversight systems that protect individuals’ rights, as well as promote institutional legitimacy. By putting intelligence agencies under civilian control through the National Security Council, ministerial accountability and parliamentary reporting, the Act promotes democratic oversight of security agencies. Such oversight minimises instances of illegal arrest, politicisation of intelligence, intrusive surveillance and breaches of privacy, thereby ensuring public trust in national security agencies. As an international best practice, the significance of accountability and oversight systems cannot be overlooked either.

The Act further safeguards human rights by encouraging intelligence-driven preventive security instead of an approach that overly relies on coercive solutions. Intelligence gathering and early warning mechanisms, coupled with the application of security networks, enable security organisations to prevent acts of terrorism, communal violence and organised crime from erupting into armed conflicts. The use of prevention reduces the need for emergency measures that potentially infringe on individual liberties and, thus, aligns with democratic principles and human security. The UN emphasises human rights and the rule of law are an integral part of a counterterrorism strategy.

Theoretically, Human Security Theory forms the main approach behind these reforms, which considers the protection of rights, dignity and well-being of individuals as major goals of national security. Additionally, SSG supports the Human Security Theory with emphasis on the relevance of legality, accountability and the observance of constitutional norms for creating efficient security organisations. Both theories indicate the betterment of national security depends on the efficiency of security and intelligence services operating under the rule of law.

Enhanced Cybersecurity
The protection of human rights in relation to Ghana's security architecture extends to cyberspace, where safeguarding personal information, privacy and critical information infrastructure is becoming a crucial component of national security. To ensure democratic governance and protect human rights, the Act further enhances the ability of Ghana to respond to cyberthreats through effective intelligence, interagency coordination and security governance. The Cybersecurity Act, 2020 (Act 1038), on the other hand, provides the main legislation in relation to cyberspace.

Cyberthreats, including cyber espionage, ransomware, cyberterrorism, identity theft, misinformation campaigns and threats to critical information infrastructure, remain major national security issues. Act 1168 improves Ghana's readiness through coordination between the intelligence agencies and related agencies. Through the National Security Council and the Office of the National Security Coordinator, Act 1168 ensures intelligence sharing and joint threat assessment and response.

The Act also enhances the security of national critical infrastructure, including government information systems, financial institutions, telecommunications, energy and defence networks. Coordinated intelligence gathering directs agencies' focus to emerging cyberthreats that could become matters of national concern. Such coordinated efforts strengthen the National Cybersecurity Policy and Strategy of Ghana, which is based on the principles of intelligence sharing and multi-stakeholder collaboration for protecting national critical information infrastructure.

Realism identifies the need for the use of cyberspace as a strategy in safeguarding the sovereignty and national interests of states. In relation to the Human Security Theory, there is also the need to safeguard the digital rights of individuals. The SSG paradigm stresses the fact that cyber intelligence operations must be conducted under the rule of law. The WoG concept stresses the need for cooperation among intelligence agencies, the Cyber Security Authority, law enforcement institutions and private-sector critical infrastructure operators.

Protection of Critical National Infrastructure

The enhancement of cybersecurity under Act 1168 naturally extends to the protection of Ghana's critical national infrastructure, which is essential for national security, economic stability and public welfare. Critical infrastructure, including energy installations, telecommunications networks, transportation systems, financial institutions, ports, airports and water supply facilities, is increasingly vulnerable to terrorism, cyberattacks, espionage, sabotage and organised crime. While the Ghana Cybersecurity Act, 2020 (Act 1038) provides the regulatory framework for protecting critical information infrastructure, Act 1168 strengthens national security by integrating intelligence, strategic coordination and operational planning for the protection of these strategic assets.

A major implication of Act 1168 is the promotion of intelligence-led infrastructure protection. Through the coordinated activities of the Internal Intelligence Agency and the Signals Intelligence Agency, security institutions are equipped to identify, assess and respond to threats before they materialise. Intelligence sharing through the National Security Council and the Office of the National Security Coordinator enhances risk assessment, and this, in turn, boosts national resilience to both physical and virtual threats. This Act also fosters interagency collaboration through cooperation among intelligence agencies, the Ghana Armed Forces, the Ghana Police Service, the Cyber Security Authority, sector regulators and operators of strategic infrastructure. Furthermore, regional and district security councils contribute to this process through intelligence gathering on the weaknesses of vital institutions and subsequent prevention measures.

Realism highlights the significance of securing strategic infrastructure for state security and sovereignty. The Human Security Theory acknowledges continuous access to basic utilities is an integral part of the well-being of the citizenry, while SSG and the WoG theories emphasise coordinated and intelligence-led protection of strategic national assets.

Stronger Crisis Management
Safeguarding critical national infrastructure through Act 1168 enhances the ability to manage crises. Contemporary security crises, including terrorist attacks, cyber incidents, natural disasters, public health emergencies, communal conflicts and industrial accidents, often threaten critical infrastructure, hence, requiring rapid, coordinated and multi-agency responses. Act 1168 provides an institutional framework that enables security institutions to anticipate, manage and recover from such crises through integrated intelligence, strategic coordination and decentralised decision-making.

A major implication of the Act is the establishment of clear coordination mechanisms for crisis response. Regarding intelligence sharing, threat assessment and operational planning, the National Security Council, the Office of the National Security Coordinator and the regional and district security councils enable effective implementation of Act 1168 for the purpose of improving the coordination of decision-making and operations and reducing duplications. Furthermore, the decentralisation of security governance enhances crisis management. The regional and district security councils ensure early warning for the identification of potential threats in their respective jurisdictions, thereby coordinating response with the aid of the National Disaster Management Organisation prior to escalation.

Based on the theoretical standpoint, the WoG concept is considered as the primary paradigm through which these reforms may be explained, emphasising the idea that a complex crisis demands an integrated response from related agencies and civil and other government institutions. The SSG approach also stresses the significance of the presence of mandate, accountability and interagency coordination as elements of efficient crisis management.

Support for National Security Strategy Implementation

Act 1168 provides for improved crisis management systems as a robust basis for the review and implementation of Ghana's National Security Strategy. The success of a national security strategy depends on the robust institutions tasked to implement the strategy. The Act, therefore, provides for the review of the National Security Strategy within one year of the inauguration of a new Parliament. The Act also serves as a critical implementation instrument by providing the legal, institutional and administrative framework required to operationalise the objectives of the National Security Strategy.

The Act aligns Ghana's security institutions with a common strategic direction. National security policy coordination, intelligence assessments and response are achieved through the National Security Council and the Office of the National Security Coordinator. This ensures security institutions coordinate on meeting national objectives and not just organisational objectives. The Act improves implementation through decentralised security governance. Through the regional and district security councils, the state is equipped to translate national security priorities into achievable regional- and district-level actions while providing feedback that shapes national policy decisions. This two-way information flow improves early warning and evidence-based decision-making and keeps the National Security Strategy abreast with security issues.

The WoG approach provides a model through which coordination can be used to enhance policy implementation through collaboration and unity of action. The importance of mandate, accountability and coordination is highlighted through the SSG Theory. This ensures the implementation of national security policies have clear, successful objectives. Combined with the Human Security Theory, these theories ensure implementation focuses on state and people's security.

Enhanced Regional and International Cooperation

Ghana's National Security Strategy can be successfully implemented both within and beyond its borders, because contemporary security risks are transnational and, therefore, demand joint action. Based on the creation of an integrated national intelligence structure, the Act enhances Ghana's ability to cooperate on security issues with bilateral, multilateral and regional security partners.

The Act strengthens intelligence cooperation with regional and international partners to facilitate timely exchange of intelligence on terrorism, violent extremism, transnational organised crime, cybercrime, maritime insecurity, trafficking and other cross-border threats. Such institutional coherence improves Ghana's ability to participate in security and intelligence-sharing arrangements under the ECOWAS, AU and the UN, thereby contributing to collective regional security. The Act also enhances Ghana's capacity to fulfil its international security commitments. Coordination at the national level equips Ghana to operationalise its counterterrorism measures regionally and internationally, support peace and security measures and assist in joint border management, maritime security and transnational crime prevention. This enhances regional stability while safeguarding Ghana's national interests in the face of the increasing interconnectivity in the security domain.

Realism identifies regional cooperation as an approach through which countries can protect their national interests from common external threats, while SSG emphasises the point that professional and coordinated institutions tend to cooperate internationally. The WoG Approach also emphasises the importance of effective national institutions for effective international cooperation.

Professionalism of Intelligence Agencies

Regional and international cooperation become sustainable when intelligence bodies are professional, competent and credible. In this context, Act 1168 immensely improves Ghana's security as far as the professionalism of its intelligence agencies is concerned. Professional intelligence agencies play an important role in improving intelligence gathering and analysis, operational effectiveness and creating public trust, which are crucial for national security.

One significant implication of Act 1168 is the provision of a well-defined legal and institutional framework on the structure and mandate of intelligence agencies. As Act 1168 outlines the responsibilities of the Internal Intelligence Agency, External Intelligence Agency and Signals Intelligence Agency, established by Act 1040, it helps in minimising ambiguities and specialisation leading to efficient functioning.

Further still, the Act enhances professionalism by enhancing accountability, ethics and compliance with the rule of law. It requires intelligence operatives to conduct themselves in line with legal frameworks that entail effective operations within constitutional principles and democratic accountability. Professionalism, institutional discipline and compliance with human rights values are encouraged through these legal frameworks. These values minimise the chances of political interference and abuse of intelligence powers. SSG is the central theory with which one can understand these reforms, since it emphasises professionalism, accountability, civilian control and effectiveness as key features of democratic security institutions. The WoG theory complements this position because it acknowledges professional intelligence services are crucial for proper interagency coordination and evidence-based decision-making. The Human Security Theory further emphasises professional intelligence services enhance the safety of citizens through lawful and preventive measures against threats.

Anticipated Challenges Affecting the Effectiveness of the Act

Despite the substantial improvements introduced by Act 1168 to Ghana's existing national security structure, the success of the Act in achieving its objectives depends on the effective implementation of the Act. This is because enhancing national resilience under the Act is only possible if the above-mentioned reforms are complemented with appropriate resources and effective interagency collaboration.

One potential major challenge is coordination. Even though Act 1168 provides clear procedures for coordination through the National Security Council, the National Security Coordinator and the regional and district security councils, rivalries and competition within bureaucracies threaten intelligence sharing and collaborations. Thus, building trust among agencies and developing a good communication system remain crucial.

Resource and capacity constraints are also an important risk factor. Good intelligence gathering, cybersecurity, surveillance technologies, data analysis and professional training demand considerable funding and qualified human resources. Insufficient funds, lack of appropriate technology and lack of qualified personnel may jeopardise the operations of intelligence and security agencies.

Another challenge is finding a balance between national security and democracy on the one hand and human rights on the other. Intelligence agencies enjoy specialised powers which require constant checks to ensure such powers are not abused, politicised or erode public trust. SSG underlines the point that efficient institutions must be accountable, professional and subject to democratic control, whereas the WoG approach underscores the significance of sustained cooperation among governmental institutions. These perspectives indicate mere legal reforms do not ensure effective national security results unless accompanied by improved institutional capabilities.

Conclusion and Policy Recommendations
The Security and Intelligence Agencies Act, 2026 (Act 1168) is a major milestone in ensuring a robust national security system in Ghana by creating a legal and institutional structure to deal with modern security threats. This has been shown throughout this paper, where it is evident the Act improves national security by improving strategic coordination, intelligence gathering and analysis, counterterrorism capability, democratic governance, respect for human rights, cybersecurity, protection of critical national infrastructure, crisis management, implementation of the National Security Strategy, regional and international cooperation and professionalism of intelligence agencies.

The Act is an intelligent and holistic approach to security issues. Enhancing national security, components such as the Office of the National Security Coordinator and the regional and district security councils results in decision-making, collaboration and decentralised security governance. However, no less significant is the reinforcement of democratic principles, civilian control and constitutionalism because democracy and national security are closely linked.

However, the success of Act 1168 depends on how it is implemented. Possible constraints to its full effectiveness include resource challenges, technology constraints, political rivalry, intelligence-sharing obstacles and emerging cyberthreats.

To derive maximum advantage from the Act, government must focus on coordinating the work of agencies by developing effective intelligence and communication systems and standard procedures. Professional development, intelligence technologies, cybersecurity and strategic analysis should be advanced for better operations. Moreover, democratic oversight by the executive, legislature, judiciary and other accountability institutions must also be improved to ensure intelligence operations conform with the Constitution and human rights. Lastly, regional and district security councils must be empowered for early warning and preventative security, and the state must also consistently improve cooperation with ECOWAS, AU and others on intelligence issues.

Major General Emmanuel W. Kotia (Rtd) | Major General | Strategy Security and Defence Consultant | Lecturer & Author